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SMYTHE'S  PRIMARY  GRAMMAR 


OUR  OWN 


PRIMARY  GRAMMAR 


FOR    THE 


USE  OF  BEGINNERS. 


By  CHARLES  W.  SMYTHE,  A.  M., 

PRINCIPAL  OF  THE    LEXINGTON    ENGLISH    AND    CLASSICAL    SCHOOL. 


GRBENSBOROUGH,  N.  C, 

STERLING   AND  CAMPBELL. 

RICHMOND,   \  A        \v.  I!  \r.<  '•  \ 
CHARLESTON,  8.  i         M'<  ai:  i  I  >>.\v> 

1861. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  sixty-one,  by 

C.  W.  SMYTHE, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  District  Court  of  North  Carolina. 


BTROTHER  &    MARCOM  PRINTERS,  RALEIGH,  N.  C. 


<^L*fc£l        *^i     *>  <  Tr,   in. 

PREFACE. 


The  political  revolution  in  which  we  are  now 
engaged  makes  necessary  an  intellectual  one. 

To  aid  in  this,  and  to  supply  an  existing  want, 
I  have  undertaken  the  preparation  of  a  series 
of  English  Grammars,  of  which  this  is  the  first. 

In  its  preparation,  I  shall  follow  as  guides  the 
facts  of  the  language,  as  shown  in  its  memo- 
rials, its  history,  and  its  present  usage ;  together 
with  all  illustrative  facts  derived  from  the  com- 
parative study  of  language. 

In  this  little  book  I  have  aimed  to  state  only 
the  most  simple  facts  of  the  language,  leaving 
all  detail  and  discussion,  beyond  what  seemed 
necessary,  for  the  higher  books. 

I  have  endeavored  to  state  these  facts  clearly, 
in  such  language  as  I  hope  may  be  easily  learned 
and  understood. 

I  have  arranged  the  material  so  that  the 
study  of  propositions,  of  language,  may  go  on 
with  that  of  words. 


•  I  . 


IV  PREFACE. 

I  should  be  glad  to  receive  any  suggestions 
from  others  that  their  experience  may  dictate, 
that  the  work  may  be  made  hereafter  as  suita- 
ble as  possible  for  the   end  it  has  in  view. 

"We  are  compelled  to  undertake  these  things 

m 

at  our  own  risk  and  under  great  disadvantages, 
and  hope  therefore  to  receive  aid  and  encour- 
agement from  the  friends  of  education. 

The  second  number,  "A  Common.  School 
Grammar,"  will  follow  in  a  few  months. 

The  third,  "A  High  School  Grammar,"  exhib- 
iting the  history,  relations,  etymological  forms, 
and  philosophical  structure  of  the  language,  is 

in  preparation. 

C.  W.  SMYTHE. 

Lexington,  N.  0.,  Oct  1,  1861. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


1.  Let  each  lesson  be  thoroughly  learned  and 
applied  before  passing  to  the  next. 

2.  Let  the  pupil  be  required  to  write  upon  his 
slate  or  the  blackboard,  daily,  exercises  upon  each 
lesson  and  fact  stated. 

3.  Let  him  take  his  reading  book,  and  point  out 
nouns,  verbs,  and  so  forth  as  they  may  be  assigned. 

4.  Let  him  be  habituated  to  give  the  reasons  for 
everything  either  in  the  forms  given  or  in  such 
as  the  teacher's  own  judgment  may  surest. 

5.  Make  yourself,  as  far  as  possible,  master  of 
the  subject,  that  you  may  be  able  from  your  own 
resources  to  illustrate  and  explain  the  subjects  of 

the  lesson. 


INTRODUCTION. 


LESSON  I. 

1.  If  we  wish  to  tell  or  write  anything  to  each 
other,  we  make  use  of  words. 

2.  Words  are  like  pictures.  If  I  show  you 
a  picture  of  a  horse,  or  dog,  you  will  instantly 
think  of  those  animals,  and  the  picture  tells  you, 
as  it  were,  a  short  story. 

3.  So,  if  you  hear  the  word  horse  or  see  it  in  a 
book,  you  think  at  once  of  the  animal  called  by 
that  name. 

4.  Thus  the  spoken  or  written  word  is  a 
picture  to  the  mind  of  some  thing  or  action. 

5.  We  know  there  arc  a  great  many  words,  yet 
all  have  something  to  tell  us,  just  as  these  hi 

6.  If  we  go  into  a  garden  we  may  find  a  great 
many  flowers  and  plants.  But,  if  we  look  care- 
fully at  them,  we  shall  find  that  there  are  but  few 
kinds  of  flowers.  One  kind  may  be  ros<  s,  another 
tulips,  and  BO  on. 

T.  So  it,  is  with  words.  They  nil  come  into  a 
few  cli 

Some  words  tell  us  what  the  names  of  things 
arc  others  what  they  arc  doing,  others  still,  tell 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAK. 


what  kind  of  tilings  they  arc,  or  how  they  do  any- 


thing. 


8.  Learning  about  such  things  as  these  is  stud- 
ying Grammar. 

Grammar  tells  us  about  words. 


LESSOX  II. 

NOUNS . 

9.  Such  words  as  James,  Susan,  Mary,  Charles, 
chair,  table,  box  we  know  are  names  of  persons 
or  things. 

There  are  a  great  many  words  that  are  names. 

10.  The  word  noun  means  name. 
We  call  names  nouns. 

.  11.  Remember  now  that : — 

A  jSr o u n  is  t h e  name  of  any  person, 
place    or    thing. 

Point  out  the  nouns  in  these  exercises  and  tell 
why  they  are  nouns,  in  this  way: — James  is  a 
noun,  because  it  is  a  name. 

EXERCISES. 

James.  Thomas.  Susan.  Chair.  Table.  V>ox. 
Desk.  Ink.  Mary  reads.  The  cat  mews.  The 
dog  barks.     Horses  run. 

Pointing  out  words  in  this  way  is  called  pars- 
ing. 

AVrite  nouns  of  your  own  on  your  slates  or  the 
blackboard  and  be  sure  and  spell  them  correctly. 


PROPOSITIONS.  0 

LESSON  III. 

VERBS. 

12.  When  I  say  "John  reads,"  "  Mary  sings," 
John  and  Mary  I  know  are  nouns,  because  they 
are  names. 

13.  Reads  and  sings  are  not  names  but  they  tell 
what  is  done.     They  are  called  verbs. 

Some  verbs,  like  reads,  tell  that  a  thing  is  done, 
others  like  is.  are  and  icas  tell  that   something  is. 

14.  So  we  say  that : — 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  tells  what  is  or 
is  done. 

15.  To  assert  means  to  tell,  to  declare,  hence 
we  may  say  also  that : — - 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  some- 
thing. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  nouns  and  verbs  in  this  way: 
Horse  is  a  noun  because  it  is  a  name.  Runs  is  a 
verb  because  it  tells  what  is  done. 

The  horse  runs.  Bain  falls.  Snow  melts. 
Water  flows.     Flowers  bloom.     Koses  fade. 


LESSON  IV. 

PROPOSITION.-. 

16.  In  "John  runs,"  John  tells  who  does  some- 
thing, runs  tells  what  he  does. 

John  is  called  the  subject,  ruis  the  predicate. 


10  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

17.  The  s  u  bj  e  c  t  is  that  of  which  something  is 
said;  as  John,  in  John  runs. 

18.  The  predicate  is  that  which  is  said  of  the 
Bubject;    like  runs,  m  John  runs. 

19.  Apropositio  n  consists  of  a  subject  and 
predicate  making  good  sen^c. 

Point  out  the  subjects  and  predicates,  nouns  and 
verbs,  in  these  propositions. 

Do  it  in  every  lesson. 

Model.  John  runs.  John  is  the  subject  be- 
cause it  is  that  of  which  something  is  said.  Runs 
is  the  predicate,  it  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  sub- 
ject John  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name.  Runs  is  a 
verb,  it  asserts  something. 

EXERCISES. 

John  runs.  The  horse  neighs.  The  wind  blows. 
The  trees  move.  The  grass  grows.  The  moon 
rises.     Apples  fall.     Water  runs. 


LESSOR  V. 

PRONOUNS. 

20.  I  may  say  "John  runs,"  or  " He  runs;" 
"  Mary  sings,"  or  "  She  sings." 

The  word  he  and  she  stand  for  John  and  Mary. 

21.  They  are  called  pronouns,  because  they  stand 
for  nouns. 

The  word  pronoun  means  for  a  noun. 


ADJECTIVES.  11 

22.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  that  stands  for 
a  noun. 

Point  out  in  these  exercises,  the  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, verbs,  subjects  and  predicates. 

Model.  His  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  stands  for 
a  noun,  and  relates  to  John. 

EXERCISES. 

John  reads  his  book.  Mary  studies  her  lesson. 
James  loves  his  parents.  The  cows  feed  in  their 
pasture.  The  horses  draw  wagons,  carts,  ploughs 
and  harrows. 


LESSON  VI. 

ADJECTIVES. 

23.  "When  I  say  the  "apple  is  sweet,"  sweet 
tells  what  kind  of  an  apple  it  is  or  describes  it. 

24.  Words  which  describe  arc  called  adjectives  ; 
as,    The  tree  is  tall.    The  hill  is  high.    A  red  rose. 

Tall,  high,  and  red  are  adjectives. 

25.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  describe  it. 

Point  out  in  each  lesson  all  the  things  you  have 
learned  and  give  reasons  for  every  tiling. 
Write  out  exercises  of  your  own. 

EXEB 

Model.    The  apple  is  sweet.     Sweet  is  an  adjec- 
tive, because  it  describes  apple. 


12  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  apple  is  sweet.  The  rose  is  red.  The 
mountain  is  high.  The  ocean  is  broad.  A  sweet 
apple.  A  tall  tree.  A  stone  wall.  The  cold  wind 
blows. 


LESSON  VII. 

CLASSES    OF   NOUNS. 

2G.  The  word  city  applies  to  all  cities.  The 
word  river  to  all  rivers ;  man  to  all  men. 

But  Richmond,  the  Potomac,  James  are  partic- 
ular names  of  single  cities,  rivers  and  men. 

27.  There  are  two  classes  of  nouns ;  common, 
and  proper. 

28.  A  Common  noun  is  a  general  name  of  a 
whole  class  of  objects ;  as,  man,  city,  river,  tree. 

29.  A  Proper  noun  is  a  particular  name  of  a 
single  person  or  thing ;  as  John,  Norfolk,  Yadkin. 

This  division  applies  properly  only  to  those  objects  that 
may  form  classes. 

The  names  of  objects  like  goodness,  sweetness,  love, 
hatred,  which  have  no  bodily  existence  are  called  Abstract 
nouns. 

Nouns  that  signify  many  things  taken  as  o*ie  whole, 
are  c-alled  Collective  nouns;  as,  people,  nation,  army. 

The  names  of  persons  with  their  titles  are  called  Com- 
plex  nouns;  as,  lion.  Thos.  lluffin,  Mr.  Jas.  Brown. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.    London  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name  ;  proper, 
it  is  a  particular  name,  and  is  the  subject  of  is. 


N.UMBER.  13 

City  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name,  common,  it  is  a  gen- 
eral name.  London  is  a  great  city.  Paris  is  the 
capital  of  France.  Bonaparte  saw  the  burning  of 
Moscow.     The  Amazon  is  a  mighty  river. 


LESSON  VIIL 

NUMBER. 

33.  We  may  say  boy,  boys  ;  man,  men  ;  horse, 
horses.  Boy  means  one  boy;  boys,  more  than  one. 

This  difference  is  called  in  Grammar  number. 

34.  Number  shows  whether  one,  or  more  than 
one  is  meant. 

It  belongs  in  English  to  nouns,  pronouns  and 
verbs. 

35.  There  are  two  numbers,  singular  and  plural. 
3G.  The  singular  denotes  but  one. 

The  plural  denotes  more  than  one. 

37.  The  plural  of  most  nouns  is  formed  by  ad- 
ding s  to  the  singular;  as,  boy,  boys;  horse, 
horses. 

38.  "Where  the  s  added  to  the  word  would  be 
hard  to  pronounce  cs  is  added ;  as  lash,  lashes ; 
fox,  foxes  ;  church,  churches, 

39.  The  letters  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  arc  called  vowels. 
The  rest  are  called  consonants. 

40.  A  few  nouns  form  their  plurals  by  changing 
the  vowel;  as,  man,  men;  goose,  geese;  foot, 
feet ;  mouse,  mice. 


14  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Some  add  en  ;  as,  ox,  oxen. 

41.  Some  are  found  only  in  the  singular ;  as, 
gold,  silver^  cheat,  icisdom. 

Some  arc  found  only  in  the  plural ;  as,  ashes, 
dregs,  embers,  goods,  bellows,  scissors. 

Some  are  found  both  in  the  singular  and  plural ; 
as,  deer,  sheep. 

Form  the  plural  of  these  nouns  : — boy,  girl, 
chair,  table;  desk,  book,  inkstand,  pen,  man,  goose, 
foot,  mouse,  lash,  miss,  fox,  church. 

"What  number  are  these  and  why  ? — Man,  boys, 
girl,  men,  books,  guns,  top,  churches,  dishes, 
mouse,  lice,  annals,  iron,  wheat,  deer. 

EXERCISES.  | 

Model.  Horse  is  a  noun  it  is  a  name;  common 
it  is  a  general  name  ;  singular  number,  it  means 
but  one,  and  it  is  the  subject  of  trots.  My  horse 
trots.  Your  horse  is  large.  My  books  are  new. 
Those  cows  are  fine. 


LESSON  IX. 

PERSON. 

42.  We  say,  I  run,  You  run,  He  runs  or  John 
runs. 

1  is  the  speaker,  you  the  one  spoken  to,  he    or 
John  the  one  spoken  of, 

43.  This  distinction  is  called  perspn. 


GENDER.  15 

There  are  three  persons,  first,  second,  and  third. 

44.  The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker. 
The  second    person   denotes  the  one  spoken 

to. 

The  third  person  denotes  the  one  spoken  of. 

45.  Nouns  are  generally  in  the  third  person, 
/is  always  first,  you  second  ;  he,  she  and  it  third. 
Verbs  have  the  three  persons  to  agree  with  the 

subject. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  John  is  a  proper  noun,  it  is  a  particular 
name;  third  person,  spoken  of ;  singular  number, 
it  means  but  one,  and  is  the  subject  of  sings. 
Sings  is  a  verb,  it  is  used  to  assert,  third  person, 
singular  number  to  agree  with  its  subject  John  by 

46.  Rule  II.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject 
in  number  and  person. 

John  sings.  Mary  plays.  The  apple  falls. 
The  sun  is  bright.  Susan  reads  her  book.  Thom- 
as flies  his  kite. 


LESSON  X. 

GENDER. 

47.  All  living  things  are  divided  into  two  cl; 
es,  males  and  femal 

This  distinction  is  called 

4  8.    All   nouns  are  divided  into   three  clas 


10  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

those  that  are  names  of  males,  those  that  are 
names  of  females,  and  those  that  are  neither  male 
nor  female. 

49.  This  distinction  is  called  Gender. 
Gender  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  in  regard  to 

sex. 

50.  There  are  three  genders,  masculine, fem- 
inine, and  neuter. 

51.  The  names  of  males  are  masculine. 
The  names  of  females  are  feminine. 

The  names  of  things  without  life  are  neu- 
ter.    The  word  neuter  means  neither. 

52.  A  few  nouns  like  parent,  cousin,  deer,  sheep, 
may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine. 

They  are  sometimes  said  to  be  of  the  common 
gender.  If  their  gender  is  not  known,  they  may 
be  parsed  as  "of  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender." 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  John  is  a  proper  noun,  it  is  a  particular 
name;  masculine  gender,  it  is  the  najneof  a  male; 
third  person,  it  is  spoken  of;  singular  number,  it 
means  but  one,  and  is  the  subject  of  studies.  His 
is  a  pronoun,  it  stamds  for  a  noun;  masculine  gen- 
der ;  third  person  ;  singular  number  to  agree  with 
John  by 

53.  Rule  IX.  Pronouns  agree  with  their  nouns 
in  gender,  number,  and  person. 

John  studies  his  lesson.  He  studies  Arithmetic. 
Mary  plays  upon  the  piano.  Jane  reads  her 
books.     The  green  grass  grows  in  the  fields. 


CASES.  17 

LESSOR  XL 

CASES. 

54.  I  say  John  runs.  John's  horse  runs.  James 
teaches  Johu.  Here  John  appears  in  three  ways 
or  relations. 

These  relations  are  called  cases. 

55.  Case  is  the  relation  that  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns have  to  other  words  in  the  same  sentence. 

56.  In  John  runs,  John  is  the  subject  and  is  in 
the  nominative  case. 

In  John's  horse  runs,  John's  denotes  the  pos- 
sessor and  is  in  the  possesire  case. 

In  James  teaches  John,  John  is  the  ohject  of 
the  verb  teach,  or'thc  person  acted  on,  and  is  in 
the  ohject  ire  case. 

57.  The  Nominative  case  is  the  subject  of 
the  verb. 

The  Possessive  case  denotes  possession,  ori- 
gin, or  fitness;  as  John's  hat,  the  sun's  rays,  men's 
shoes. 

The  Objective  case  is  the  object  of  the  verb. 

58.  When  a  person  is  addressed,  the  noun  is  in 
the  Vocative  case. 

50.  To  decline  is  to  give  the  cases,  numbers  and 
persons. 

Noun-  arc  declined  thus  : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

ninativi   Boy.  A  m.  Boys, 

Possessive    Boj  P     .  B  r 

Objective       Boy,*  Obj,    Boj   , 

Decline  girl,  bird,  box,  hand. 


18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

BXERCTSES. 

Model.  Busau  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name  ;  proper, 
it  is  a  particular  name ;  feminine  gender,  it  is  the 
name  of  a  female  ;  third  person,  spoken  of:  sin- 
gular number,  it  means  but  one;  nominative  case, 
it  is  the  subject  of  reads  by 

60.  Rule  I.  The  subject  of  the  verb  is  put  in 
the  nominative  case. 

Susan  reads.  James  studies.  The  wind  blows. 
Water  flows.  Roses  bloom.  Apples  fall.  Horses 
run.     The  Saviour  lives. 


LESSON  XII. 

FORMATION    OF   THE   CASKS. 

61.  The  nominative  and  objective  cases  have  the 
same  form. 

62.  The  Possessive  case  is  formed  by  adding 

the  apostrophe  (')  and  letter  s  to  the  singular;  as, 
John's  hat. 

63.  "When  the  s  cannot  be  easily  pronounced 
with  the  word,  the  apostrophe  only  is  added ;  as, 
Moses'  seat.     Thetis'  son.    For  conscience'  sake. 

64.  When  the  plural  ends  in  s  the  apostrophe 
only  is  added  ;  as,  Boys'  play. 

When  it  does  not  end  in  s,  the  s  and  apostro- 
phe arc  both  added  ;  as,  men's  shoes. 
Form  the  possessive  case  of  these  nouns,  Man, 


ApJICTIVES.  19 

Tree,  Girl,  Horse,  Wiliam,  Thomas,  Susan.  Mary, 
Cow,  Horses,  Boys,  Girls.      Decline  these  words. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Mary's  is  a  proper  noun,  a  particular 
name  ;  feminine  gender,  the  name  of  a  female  ; 
third  person,  spoken  of;  singular  number,  means 
but  one;  possessive  case,  denotes  posession  and 
limits  book  by. 

65.  Kule  V.  A  n  o  u  n  or  pronoun  limiting 
another  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing  is 
put  in  the  possessive  case, 

Mary's  book  is  new.  John's  father  came.  His 
horse  is  white.     The  elephant's  skin  is  thick. 


LESSON    XIII. 

ADJECTIVES. 

66.  I  say  a  good  man,  a  tall  man,  this  man,  that 
man.  Good  and  tall  describe  man.  This  and  tha  t 
point  out  which  one  is  meant. 

They  are  all  adjectives. 

67.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun 
or  pronoun  to  di  scribe  or  define  it. 

68.  There  are  two  kinds  of  adjective  ,  crip- 
fie< .  and  definitm  . 

69.  Descriptive  adjectives  describe  nouns 
mT  pointing  out  their  qualities  :  as,  B  good  man,  a 
kind  num. 


20  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

70.  Definitive  adjectives  define  or  limit 
nouns,  by  pointing-  out  which  one,  or  how  many  ; 
as,  tin's  man,  that  man,  each  man,  ten  men. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Sweet  is  a  descriptive  adjective,  it  is  a 
word  joined  to  a  noun  to  describe  it,  and  belongs 
to  apples  by 

71.  Rule  VI.  A  dj  ectives  belong  to  nouns  which 
they  describe  or  define. 

Table  is  a  common  noun,  a  general  name;  neu- 
ter gender,  neither  male  nor  female  ;  third  person, 
spoken  of;  singular  number,  means  but  one; 
and  objective  case,  it  is  the   object  of  strikes  by 

Rule  X.  The  o  bj  ecf  of  the  transitive  verb  is  put 
in  the  objective  case. 

The  apple  is  sweet.  James  strikes  the  table. 
The  strong  wind  overturns  the  trees.  Large  deep 
rivers  float  long  heavy  rafts. 


LESSON  XIV. 

CLASSES    OF    ADJECTIVES    CONTINUED. 

72.  Properadj  ectives  are  those  derived 
from  proper  names.  They  should  begin  with 
capital  or  large  letters;  as  Roman,  American. 

73.  Definitive  adjectives  are  divided  into 
X u  m  e  r  al  s  and  P  r  o  n  o  m  i  n  a  1  adjectives. 

74.  Xu  morals  are  those  used  in  counting; 
as,  one,  two. 


ADJECTIVE  21 

75.  P  rono  m  i  n  a  1  adjectives,  when  used  with 
nouns,  arc  adjectives;  when  used  without,  are 
pronouns:  as,  This  man.    This  is  mine. 

76.  Numerals  are  divided  into  cardinals, 
and  ordinals. 

77.  The  cardinals  show  how  many  are  meant; 
as,  one,  two,  three. 

78.  The  o  r  d  i  n  al s  show  which  ones  arc  meant 
as,  first,  second,  third. 

79.  Pronominal  adjectives  arc  divided  into 
demonstratives,  distributives,  and  indefinites. 

80.  The  demonstratives  are  this,  that,  these, 
those,  former,  latter.  They  point  out  precisely 
which  arc  meant. 

81.  The  distributives  are  each,  every,  either 
and  neither.  They  point  out  separately  ;  as,  each 
man,  each  separate  man. 

82.  The  indefinites  are,  some,  one,  all,  such, 
no,  none,  same,  several,  other,  another,  many,  f etc,  £c. 

They  point  out  no  particular  person  or  thing. 

EXERCISES. 

Model,    This  is  a  definitive  adjective,  demonstra- 
tive kind,  it  defines  precisely  what  is  meant;  it 
defines  man  by  Rule  VI. 

83.  Remark.  Definitives  must  agree  with  their 
nouns  in  number. 

This  man  is  tall.  This  excellent  little  boy  re- 
spects all   other  good  boys.     Good  studious  girls 


22  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK. 

like  fine  new  books.     That  famous  Roman  gene 
ral  conquered  several  Grecian  generals. 

Each  flying  soldier  sought  some  secure  hiding 
place. 


LESSON  XV. 

COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

84.  I  may  say,  this  man  is  taU,  that  man  is  taller, 
but  James  is  the  tallest. 

85.  There  are  three  different  degrees  of  height. 
This  distinction  is  called  in  Grammar  comparison. 

86.  There  are  three  degrees,  positive,  com- 
parative, and  superlative. 

87.  The  positive  describes  without  compart 
son. 

The  comparative  makes  a  comparison  be- 
tween two;  as  "  John  is  taller  than  James." 

The  superlative  degree  makes  a  comparison 
between  three  or  more ;  as,  "  John  is  the  tallest 
of  the  family." 

88.  The  comparative  degree  is  formed  by 
adding  r  or  er  to  the  positive. 

The  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  st  or  est 
to  the  positive. 

Positive  small,  comparative  smaller,  superlative 
smallest. 

89.  Compare  in  this  manner,  high,  pretty,  low, 
green,  rough,  sweet,  sour,  happy,  tall. 


COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES.  23 

The  comparative  degree  is  followed  by  than  and 
a  noun  in  the  nominative  to  a  verb  understood ; 
as,  wisdom  is  better  than  rubies  [are]. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Taller  is  an  adjective,  a  word  joined  to 
a  noun  to  modify  it ;  descriptive,  it  describes  Thom- 
as; comparative  degree,  it  makes  a  comparison  be- 
tween two,  and  belongs  to  Thomas,  by  Rule  VI. 

Thomas  is  taller  than  James.  Wisdom  is  better 
than  rubies.  Platinum  is  heavier  than  gold  ;  it 
is  the  heaviest  of  the  metals.  The  best  and  wisest 
men  are  sometimes  wrong. 


LESSOR  XVI. 

COMPARISON  CONTINUED. 

90.  Most  long  adjectives  are  compared  by  the 
help  of  more  and  most,  or  less  and  least ;  as  pleas- 
ant, more  pleasant,  most  pleasant,  industrious  less 
industrious,  least  industrious. 

91.  Some  adjectives  are  wanting  in  some  of  the 
degrees,  which  are  supplied  by  other  words. 

EXAMPLES. 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Good,  better,  best. 

Bad,  ill,  or  evil    worse,  worst. 

Much,  or  many   more,  most. 

Little,  less,  least. 


24  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


EXERCISES. 


The  best  men  are  not  the  most  successful. 

The  worst  men  are  often  successful.  Honesty  is 
the  best  policy.  Truth  is  more  wonderful  than 
fiction. 


> 


LESSON  XVII. 


ARTICLES. 

92.  The  words  a  or  an  and  the  are  called  arti- 
cles. 

93.  A  or  a  n  is  called  the  indefinite  article. 
T  h  e  is  called  the  definite  article. 

94.  The  noun  without  the  article  is  used  in  its 
widest  sense.  Man  means  all  men,  the  race  of 
men. 

A  man  means  one  man,  but  no  particular  man. 
The  man  means  a   particular   man,   who  was 
known  before. 

95.  A  is  used  before  consonant  sounds  only.  An 
is  used  before  vowels. 

96.  A  or  an  is  used  with  singular  nouns,  the  with 
singular  or  plural. 

Correct  these  exercises. 

A  inkstand.    A  apple.    A  hour.    A  ounce.    An 
horse.     An  high  hill.     A  industrious  man. 
The  indefinite  article  limits  nouns,  by 

97.  Rule  VII.  The  indefinite  article  limits  nouns 
in  the  singular  number. 


PRONOUNS.  25 

The  definite  article  by 

98.    Rule  VIII.     The  definite  article  limits  nouns 
in  the  singular  or  plural  number. 


LESSON"    XVIIL 

PRONOUNS. 

99.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  Personal, 
Relative,  Interrogative,  Possessive, 
and  Definitive  pronouns. 

100.  Personal  pronouns  are  those  which  al- 
ways represent  the  same  person. 

101.  They  are  1,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  and  it. 

1  is  first  person,  thou  or  you,  second  lie,  she,  and 
it,  third.    He  is  masculine ;  she  feminine ;  it  neuter. 

102.  They  are  thus  declined  : 


SINGULAR 

PLURAL. 

JVom.      Poss. 

Ob  I. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

I,           mJ, 

me ; 

We, 

our, 

us. 

Thou,  thy, 

thee ; 

You, 

your, 

you. 

He,        his, 

him ; 

They, 

their, 

them 

She,      her, 

her  ; 

They, 

their, 

them 

It,          its, 

it; 

They, 

their, 

them 

EXERCISE   . 

Model.  He  is  a  pronoun,  it  stands  for  a  noun  ; 
personal,  it  represents  the  same  person  ;  masculine 
gender,  third  person,  singular  to  agree  with  John 
by  Rule  IX. 

2 


26  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

John  studies,  lie  will  excel.     My  horse  is  stron- 
ger than  your  uncle's   horse.     T!  \v  saw  us.     We 
respect  our  friends.     Thou,  God,  seest  me."    He 
knew  its  faults.     My  uncle  came  to  our  house. 


LESSOR  XIX. 

RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 


^ 


103.  "  The  boy,  whostudies,  will  learn."  Who 
relates  to  boy  raid  stands  for  it.  It  also  connects 
li\\ho  studies  "  with  "The  boy  will  learn." 

Who  is  called  a  relative  pronoun. 

104.  The  Relative  pronouns  arc  who,  which 
and  that.  As  is  a  relative  after  inarm,  such,  and 
same. 

105.  Eelative  pronouns  stan  d  for  nouns 
and  connect  propositions  or  clauses. 

106.  Who  stands  for  persons,  which  for  animals 
and  things.  That  is  used  in  the  place  of  who  or 
which. 

They  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers  and 
are  thus  declined : 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Nora.       Poss.       Obj.  Nom.       Poss.      Obj. 

SVho,     whose,  who.u;  Who,     whose,  whom. 

Which,  whose,  which;  Which,  whose,  which. 

That,     whose,  that;  That,     whose,  that. 


PRONOUNS  CONTINUED.  27 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Who  is  a  pronoun,  it  stands  for  a  noun  ; 
relative,  it  relates  to  man  and  connects  the  clauses, 
third  person,  singular  to  agree  with  man  by  Rule 
IX,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  the  subject  of  is 
by  Hule  I. 

Point  out  the  clauses,  thus  :  "  The  man  is  hap- 
py "  is  the  principal  clause,  "  who  is  good,"  is 
the  relative  clause.  Who  connects  the  two  to- 
together. 

The  man,  who  is  good,  is  happy.  He  is  the 
man,  whom  I  saw.  The  orator,  whom  we  heard, 
was  eloquent.  The  rose,  which  we  saw,  was  fading. 
The  lady,  who  visited  us,  has  gone  to  Europe. 


LESSOR  XX. 

PRONOUNS    CONTINUED. 

107.  The  Interrogative  pronouns  are  those 
used  in  asking  questions.  They  are  who,  which, 
and  what.  When  joined  to  nouns  they  are  interrog- 
ative adjectives  ;  as,  "  ivhat  man  is  that  ? 

108.  The  Possessive  pronouns  are  mine,  thine, 
ours,  yours,  his,  her%  its,  and  theirs. 

109.  They  are  found  in  the  nominative  and  ob- 
jective castes;  as,  This  book  is  mine.  Tie  has  lost 
yours  but  she  has  found  h<rs. 

110.  The  Definitive  pronouns  arc  the  same 
as  the*  Pronominal  adjectives. 


28  KMJLISH    (iltAMMAK. 

111.  This )  that,  these,  and  those  are  demonstra- 
tives. 

Each,  every,  either,  neither  arc  distributives. 
Some,  any,  all,  other,  both,  same,  another,  one,  such, 
none,  few,  many,  are  indefinites. 

112.  The  pronouns,  whoever,  whichever,  who- 
soever, whichsoever,  what,  whatsoever  perform  a 
a  double  office  and  are  called  Double  Rela- 
tives. The  simplest  way  of  parsing  them  is  as 
follows:  "I  know  not  what  you  say."  "What 
you  say  "  is  the  object  of  know,  and  "  what"  the 
object  of  say.  "Whoever  studies  will  learn." 
"Whoever  studies"  is  the  subject  of  will  learn, 
and,  "whoever,"  the  subject  of  studies. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Who  is  a  pronoun,  it  stands  for  a  noun  ; 
interrogative,  it  asks  a  question  ;  third  person,  sin- 
gular to  agree  with  the  answer,  father,  by  Rule  IX. 

Who  gave  this  book  to  you  ?  My  father  gave  it 
to  me.  Which  is  your  book  ?  The  one  with  a 
red  cover  is  mine.  What  man  is  that  ?  Which 
rose  will  you  take?  Whoever  is  industrious  and 
temperate  will  succeed. 


LESSON  XXL 

THE    VERB   AND   ITS    CLASSES. 

113.  The  verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  something. 

114.  When  I  say  "  John  runs  "  I  express  a  com- 
plete thought,  but  when  I  say  "  John  reads  "  some- 


VERBS.  29 

thing  else,  a  book  or  paper  is  necessary  to  com- 
plete the  thought. 

115.  Hence,  there  are  two  classes  of  verbs. 
They  arc  called  Transitive  and   Intransi- 
tive. 

116.  Transitive  means  passing  over,  because 
the  action  passes  over  from  the  actor  to  the  object. 

Intransitive  means  not  passing  over. 

117.  Transitive  verbs  are  those  which  require 
the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete  the  sense; 
as,  John  reads  his  booh. 

Intransitive  verbs  are  those  which  do  not 
require  an  object;  as  John  runs. 

118.  If  it  or  them  can  follow  a  verb  it  is  transi- 
tive, otherwise  it  is  intransitive. 

119.  Transitive  verbs  have  two  forms  called  the 
Active  and  Passive  voices. 

120.  In  the  Active  voice  the  subject  acts  upon 
some  object ;  as,  James  teaches  William. 

In  the  Passive  voice  the  object  is  acted  upon 
and  is  the  subject  of  the  verb;  as,  William  is 
struck  by  James. 

EXERCISES. 

Model,  Falls  is  a  verb,  it  asserts  something; 
intransitive,  it  docs  not  require  an  object;  third, 
singular  to  agree  with  rain  by  Rule  II, 

Rain  falls.  The  snow  melts.  The  warm  sun 
revives  the  earth.  The  trees  put  forth  their  leaves, 
The  flowers  and  grass  spring  up. 


SO  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

LESSOX    XXII. 

THE    MODES. 

121.  Verbs  assert  action,  or  being  in  different 
ways  or  manners. 

122.  The  manner  in  which  assertion  is  made 
is  called  Mode. 

123.  There  are  fourmodes;  the  Indicative? 
the  Potential ,  the  Subjunctive  and  the  Im- 
perative. 

124.  The  Indicative  indicates  or  declares 
positively. 

125.  The  Potential  asserts  power,  liberty  and 
necessity. 

126.  The  Subjunctive  implies  a  condition  or 
supposition. 

127.  There  are  other  forms  which  do  not  assert 
and  therefore  are  not  modes.  They  represent 
action  in  an  indefinite  manner. 

128.  They  are  the  Infinitives,  Partici- 
ples and  Verbal  noun. 

The  Infinitives  of  the  verb  learn  arc  To  learn 
and  To  have  learned. 

The  Participles  are  Learning,  Learned, 
Having  Learned. 

The  Verbal  noun  is  Learning. 

129.  It  can  be  the  subject  of  a  proposition.  The 
participle  in  infj  cannot  be. 


THE  TENSES.  31 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Shines  is  a  verb,  it  asserts ;  intransitive, 
it  does  not  require  an  object ;  indicative  mode,  it 
asserts  positively ;  third,  singular  to  agree  with 
sun  by  Rule  II. 

The  sun  shines.  The  waves  beat.  The  sea  roars. 
The  carpenter  builds  houses.  Fire  biirns  wood 
and  coal.  The  smoke  rises.  The  farmer  sows 
his  seed.  Writing  is  a  useful  exercise.  Writing 
letters  to  our  friends  is  a  pleasant  labor. 


LESSON    XXIII. 

THE    SIMPLE    TENSES. 

130.  There  are  three  divisions  of  time,  presen  t, 
past,   and  future  . 

131.  In  each  of  these  an  action  may  be  asserted 
as  indefinite,  going  on  or  progressive,  and 
completed. 

He  writes  is  indefinite.  He  is  writing  is  pro- 
gressive.    He  has  written  is  completed. 

These  distinctions  of  time  are  called  Tenses. 

132.  Tense  means  time. 

133.  There  are  six  tenses  :  Present,  Past,  Future, 
Present  Perfect,  Past  Perfect,  Future  Perfect 

''  '  re  are  two  forms  in  each,  the  simple  and 
the  progressive. 

134.  The  progressive  is  formed  by  adding  the 
Participle  in  ing  to  the  verb.  Be  or  Am. 


32  ENGLISH    (GRAMMAR. 

135.  The  Present  tense  denotes  pres- 
ent time. 

First,  as  indefinite.  c/IIe  writes  well,"  that  is, 
he  is  accustomed  to  write  well. 

Second,  as  progressive.     "lie  is  writing"  now. 

136.  The   Past   tense    denotes    past 
time . 

First,  as  indefinite.  "  lie  wrote  well,"  that  is,  he 
was  accustomed  to  do  it. 

Second,  as  progressive.  "  He  was  writing  "  then. 

137.  The    future    tense    denotes   fu- 
ture time. 

First,  as  indefinite.    "He  will  write  "  sometime. 
Second,  as  progressive.    "  He  will  he  writing" 
then. 

EXERCISER. 

Model.  Studies  is  a  verb,  it  asserts  ;  transitive, 
it  requires  an  ohject ;  indicative  mode,  it  asserts 
positively  ;  present  tense,  it  denotes  present  time  ; 
third,  singular  to  agree  with  Mary  by  Rule  II, 

Mary  studies  her  lesson.  The  birds  are  sing- 
ing. He  retired  early.  The  farmer  was  ploughing 
his  field.     The  sun  was  shining. 


LESSON  XXIV. 

THE  TENSES  OF  COMPLETED  ACTION. 

138.  The  Present  Perfect  tense  deno- 
notes  an  action  or  state  completed  i u 


THE  TENSES  CONTINUED.  33 

past    time    connected    with     the    pres- 
ent; as  "James  has  written  a  letter  to  clay." 

The  progressive  form  denotes  an  action  going 
on  in  past  time  connected  with  the  present;  as, 
"He  has  been  writing  to  day.  " 

139.  The  Past  Perfect  tense  denote  s 
an  action  or  state  completed  before 
some  past  time;  as,  "  He  had  gone  when  I 
came." 

The  progressive  form  denotes  an  action  or  state 
going  on  before  some  past  time  ;  as  "Pie  had  been 
writing  before  I  came.  " 

140.  The  Future  Tor  feet  tense  d  e- 
notes  that  an  action  or  state  will  be 
completed  before  some  future  time; 
as  "He  will  have  gone  before  you  get  there." 

The  progresive  form  denotes  an  action  or  state 
going  on  before  some  future  time:  as,  "He  will 
have  been  travelling  a  week  tomorrow.  ' 

exercises. 

Model.  Has  written  is  a  verb,  it  asserts;  transitive, 
it  requires  an  object ;  indicative  mode,  it  asserts 
positively  ;  present  perfect  tense,  it  denotes  an  ac- 
tion completed  in  present  time  ;  third,  singular  to 
agree  with  he  by  Rule  II. 

lie  has  written  a  Letter.      Thomas   had   <rone 
before  the  stage  came.     The  messenger  will  have 
reached  him  by  to-morrow. 
2b 


odt  ENGLISH    GUtAMMAK. 

He  lias  been  studying  Latin  and  Greek.  Mary 
had  been  playing  with  her  doll.  James  will  have 
been  studying  an  hour  when  the  clock  strikes. 


LESSOR  XXV. 

TEXSES    OF    THE    POTENTIAL. 

141.  These  six  tenses  belong  only  to  the  Indic- 
ative mode,  since  that,  only,  asserts  positively. 

The  tenses  do  not  have  the  same  definite  mean- 
ing in  the  other  modes. 

142.  The  Potential  has  four  forms : 
Present,  Past,  P  resent  P  e  r  f  e  c  t ,  P  a  s  t 

Per  f  e  c  t. 

143.  The  signs  of  the  Present  are  may,  can,  mast. 
The  signs  of  the  Past  are  might,  coul'd,  would  and 

should. 

The  signs  of  the  Present  Perfect,  may  have,  can 
have,  must  have. 

The  signs  of  the  Past  Perfect,  might  have,  could 
have,  Ape. 

144.  The  Present  tense  denotes  present  or 
future  time ;  as,  "  He  may  go  now,"  or  "  He  may 
go  to-morrow." 

The  Past  tense  denotes  what  might  take  place 
at  any  time. 

The  Present  Perfect  tense  denotes  what 
may  have  taken  place  in  past  time. 

The  P  a  s  t  Perfect  tense  denotes  what  might 
have  taken  place  in  past  time. 


STRONG  AND  WEAK  VERBS.  35 

TENSES    OF    THE   SUBJUNCTIVE,    IMPERATIVE,    AC. 

145.  The  S  u  b  i  u  n  c  t  i  v  e  mode  has  two  forms 
called  the  Present  and  Past  tenses. 

The  P  r  e  s  e  n  t  denotes  a  future  condition  ;  as 
"If  lie  study"  means  if  he  shall  study. 

The  P  a  s  t  denotes  a  supposition  in  present 
time  which  is  known  not  to  be  real;  as,  "If  he 
were  studious,  he  would  learn,"  but  he  is  not  stu- 
dious. 

The  I  m  pe  r  a  t  i  v  e  has  only  the  Present  tense 
and,  second  person. 

The  I  n  f i  n  i  t  i  v  e  has  twro  forms.  Present, 
To  love ;  and  Perfect,  To  have  loved. 

The  Participle  has  three  forms,  the  Im- 
perfect, Loving;  the  Perfect,  Loved;  and 
the  C  o  m  p  o  u  n  d ,  Having  Loved. 

EXERCISES. 

The  apple  is  sour.  The  time  has  come.  The 
wind  blew.  His  farm  produces,  corn,  wheat,  hay, 
and  oa1 


LESSON  XWI. 

I  HE    REGH  I.  \K      \Ni>     [RREGUL  W      <»i;     STRONG 
WEAK    VERBS. 

14o\  The  'principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  Pr 
ent  and   Past  tenses  indicative  and   the  P<  r 
fe  ct   Participl  e. 


36*  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

147.  iyrom  these  the  other  parts  of  the  verb  are 
formed. 

There  are  two  ways  of  forming  these  principal 
parts,  and  therefore  two  classes  of  verbs. 

148.  One  class  adds  a  syllable  to  the  present 
tense,  the  other  changes  the  vowel ;  as,  learn, 
learned,  learned ;  smg,  sang,  sung. 

149.  They  are  commonly  called  Regular  and 
Irregular,  and  are  thus  defined  : 

150.  The  Regular  verbs  add  d  or  cd  to  form 
their  principal  parts. 

Their  regular  verbs  do  not  add  d  or  cd  to  form 
their  principal  parts. 

151.  The  later  and  more  correct  division  is  into 
Strong  and  Weak  verbs. 

152.  The  Strong  verbs  form  their  principal 
parts  by  changing  the  vowel ;  as,  s/'ng,  sang.  Bung. 

The  Weak  verbs  require  the  addition  of  a 
letter  or  syllable,  t,  d,  or  cd  ;  as,  keep,  keptf,  kep£; 
love,  loved,  lover/;  learn,  learned,  learned. 

The  Strong  verbs  are  so  called,  because  they 
form  their  parts  in  themselves;  while  the  weak 
require  an  addition. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Had  studied  is  a  verb,  it  asserts ;  weak 
(or  regular)  it  adds  cd  to  form  its  principal  parts; 
indicative  mode,  it  asserts  positively  ;  past  perfect 
tense,  it  denotes  what  had  taken  place  before  some 
other  action ;  third,  singular  to  agree  with  he  by 
Rule  II. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  BE  OR  AM.  37 

He  had  studied  his  lesson  before  he  went  to 
recite.  He  has  gone.  The  river  has  fallen.  The 
birds  have  flown. 

It  is  sufficient  to  say  in  parsing  that  the  verb  adds  ed  to 
form  the  past  tense. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

CONJUGATION   OF    THE    VERB    BE    OR    AM. 

153.  The  verb  Be  is  a  defective  verb  made  up 
of  the  verbs,  am,  be,  and  ukts. 

Principal  Paris. 
Present,  am.     Past,  was.    Perfect  Part.  been. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  Person;  I  am,  1st  Person,  We  are, 

2d    Person,  Thou  art,  2d  Person.  Xou  are, 

jBd     Person,  He  is,  3d    Person.  They  are, 

PAST    TENSE 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was,  I .  We  were, 

2.  Thou  wast,  1.   Y"u  were, 
:'».   1  [e  was  :  They  were. 

FUTURE    TF. 

gular.  PI'' 

1.  1  shall  or  will  be,  1.  We  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  Thoushaltorwilthe,  2.  STou  jhall  or  will  bi 

3.  He  .d.all  <>r  will  be;  3.  Th<  v  shall  or  will  be 


38  ENGLtSH    GRAMMAR. 

PRESENT    PERFECT    TEXSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been,  1.  We  have  been. 

2.  Thou  hasl  been,  2.  You  have  been, 

3.  He  has  been.  3.  They  have  been. 

PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  T  had  been.  1.  We  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.  You  had  been, 

3.  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  be 

FUTURE    PERFECT    TEX.^E. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or   will  have  been,  1.   We  shall    or    will    have 

been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  2.   You  shall  or    will    have 

been,  been, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been.  3.  They  shall  or   will  have 

been. 

EXERCISES. 

He  had  been  rich.  James  was  a  painter.  lie 
will  be  wise  if  he  listens  to  his  advice.  It  is  sum- 
mer and  the  fields  are  screen. 


LESSON  XXVIII. 

POTENTIAL    MODE    OF    BE    OR    AM. 

PRESENT. 

Signs,  may,  can,  must.     Conjugate  with  each, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be,  1.   We  may  be, 

2.  Thou  ma)  ;t  be,  2.   You  may  be, 

3.  He  may  be  ;  '.).  Thev  mav  be. 


CONJUGATION  OF  BE  Oil  AM. 


39 


PAST. 

Signs,  might,  could,  would  and  should. 
Singular^  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be,  1.   T\  o  might  be, 

2.  Thou  mi glits t  be,  2.   You  might  be, 

3.  He  might  be;  3.  They  might  be. 

PRESENT    PERFECT. 

Signs,  may  have,  can  have,  must  have. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  1.  We  may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  2.  You  may  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been;  3.  They  may  have  been. 


PAST    PERFECT. 

Signs,   might  have,   could    have,   would   have, 
should  have. 

Plural. 

1.  We  might  have  been. 

2.  You  might  have  been, 

3.  They  might  have  been. 


Singular. 

1.  I  might  have  been 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been. 

3.  He  might  have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 


PRESENT. 


Singular 

1.  Tf  I  be, 

2.  If  thou  be, 

3.  If  he  be; 


Plural. 


1.  If  we  be, 

2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  they  be. 


1'  1ST. 


Singular 

1.  If  1  were, 

2    If  thou  wert, 
3.  If  he  were ; 


Plural. 

1 .  Tf  wp  were, 

2.  It'  you  were, 
•°>.   If  they  wore. 


40 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 
2    Be  thou  or  you. 

Present.  To  be. 


IMPERATIVE    MODE. 

J y hi  rah 
2.  Be  ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVES. 

Perfect.  To  hare  been. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect.  Being.  Perfect.  Been.   Compound.  Having  been 

154.  A    synopsis    is  given   by   naming  the 
first  persons  singular  of  each  mode  and  tense. 

155.  Synopsis  of  Be  or  Am. 

INDICATIVE.  POTENTIAL. 

Present.  I  am.  I  may,  can  or  must  be. 

Past,  I  was.  I    might,    could,   would    or 
Future,  I  shall  or  will  be.  should  be. 

Pres.  Perf.j  I  have  been.  I  may,  or  can  have  been. 

Past  Per/.,  I  had  been.  I  might  or  could  have  been 
Put,  Perf,  I  shall  or  will  have 
been. 


Present.  If  I  be. 


Present,  To  be. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Past,  If  I  were. 

IMPERATIVB. 

Be,  thou,  or  you. 

INFINITIVES. 

Perfect,  To  have  been. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect,  Being.     Per.,  Been.     Compound,  Having  been. 

EXERCISES. 

He  may  be  there  if  he  is  not  at  home.  He  will 
be  happy.  James  might  have  been  rich  if  he  had 
been  prudent. 


CONJUGATION  OF  LOVE. 

LESSON  XXIX. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  LOVE. 

Principal  Parts. 
Present,  love.     Pasty  loved.     Perfect  Part,  loved, 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

\.  I  love.  1.  We  love, 

2.  Thou  lovest,  2.  You  love, 

3.  He  loves;  3.  They  love. 

FAST    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  loved.  1.  We  loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.  You  loved. 

3.  He  loved;  3    They  loved. 

FUTURE    TEXSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  J  shall  or  will  love,  1.  We  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love.       2.   You  shall  or  will  love. 

3.  lie  shall  or  will  love;  3.  They  shall  or  will  love. 

PRESENT    PERFECT    TEN8K. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1  have  loved.  1.  We  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  2.  You  have  loved. 

3.  He  has  loved;  3.  They  have  loved. 

PAST    PERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  loved,  1.   We  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.   5Tou  had  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved;  They  had  loved 


40 

42  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  loved,  1.   We   shall    or   will    have 

2.  Thou  shalt  or   wilt  have  loved. 

loved,  2.   You   shall   or   will   have 

3.  He  si  all  or  will  have  loved;  loved, 

3.  They  shall  or  will  have 
loved. 

POTENTIAL. 

PRESENT. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  I  may  love,  1.  We  may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.  You  may  love, 

3.  He  may  love;  3.  They  may  love. 

PAST. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  T  might  love,  1.  We  might  love, 

2.  Thou  mighst  love,  2.  You  might  love, 
8.  He  might  love;  3.  They  might  love. 

PRESENT    PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  loved,  1.  We  may  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  Lave  loved.  2.  You  may  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved;  3.  They  may  have  loved. 

PAST    PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  loved,  1.  We  might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mights t,  have  loved,  2.  You  might  have  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  loved;  3.  They  might  have  loved. 


I 


CONJUGATION  OF  LOVE.  43 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


PRESENT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  Hove,  1.  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  love  ;  3.  If  They  love. 

156.  The  Present  is  the  only  conditional  form 
that  differs  from  the  indicative  except  the  past  of 
be  or  am, 

IMPERATIVE, 
Singular.  Plural. 

|2.  Love  thou  or  you  2.  Love  ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVES, 

Present,  To  love.      Perfect,  To  have  loved. 

r.VUTICIPLES. 

piper.,  Loving.  Per.,  Loved.     Confound,  Having  loved. 

Let  the  pupil  write  or  give  a  synopsis  of  this 
verb. 

EXERCISES. 

Model  May  have  loved  is  a  verb,  it  asserts-,  weak 
(or  regular,)  it  adds  ed  to  form  the  past  tense ;  tran- 
sitive it  recpiircs  an  object,  potential,  it  implies pos- 
sibility: present  perfect,  it  asserts  what  may  have 
taken  place;  third,  singular  to  agree  with  he  by 
Rule  II. 

He  may  have  loved.     I  learn  u;  m  by  hard 

Btudy.     James  had  played  until  he  was  tire  d.    We 
'play  ball  after  we  have  learned  our  lesson 
Like  love  conjugate  learn,  study,  play. 


.« 


44  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  XXX. 

PROGRESSIVE    FORM    OF    LEARN. 

157.  The  progressive  form  is  conjugated  by 
adding  the  Imperfect  Participle  of  any  verb  to  the 
forms  of  be  or  am. 

158.  Synopsis  of  Learn,  Progressive  Form. 

INDICTATIVE    MODE.  POTENTIAL    MODE. 

Present,  I  am  learning.  I  may  be  learning. 

Past,  I  was  learning.  I  might  be  learning. 

Future,    I    shall    or  will    be 

learning. 
Pres.  Per.,  I  have  been  learn-  I  may  have  been  learning. 

ing. 
Past  Per/.,  I  had  been  learn-  I  might  have  been  learning, 

ing. 
Fvt.  Per/.,  I  shall  have  been 


learning 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 


Present,  If  I  be  learning.  Past,  If  I  were  learning. 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 

Singula?'  Plural. 

2.  Be  thou  learning.  2.  Be  ye  learning. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present,  To  be  learning.         Ferf.,  To  have  been  learning: 

Conjugate  thus  :  I  am  learning,  Thou  art  learn- 
ing, He  is  learning,  We  are  learning,  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  (If  he)  learn  is  a  verb,  it  asserts,  weak,  it 
adds  ed  to  form  the  past  tense ;  transitive,  it  re- 


PASSIVE  voice:  of  love.  45 

■ 

quires  au  object;  subjunctive  mode,  it  implies  a 
future  condition;  present  tense  in  its  form;  third, 
singular  to  agree  with  he  by  Rule  II.  If  he  learti 
he  will  please  us,  If  it  rain  to-morrow  I  cannot 
go.  If  it  were  he,  he  would  come  to  see  us.  Come 
to  me  and  bring  me  your  book.  I  saw  a  boy  read- 
ins:  his  book. 


LESSON  XXXI, 

THE   PASSIVE    VOICE   OF    LOVE, 

159.  The  Passive  voice  is  formed  by  adding  the 
perfect  participle  of  any  transitive  verb  to  the 
forms  of  the  verb  be  or  am. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Shigular.  Plural, 

1.  I  am  loved,  1.  We  are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved,  2.  You  are  loved, 

3.  He  is  loved;  3.  They  are  loved. 

PAST    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was  loved,  1.  We  were  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  2.  You  were  loved, 

3.  He  was  loved;  3.  They  were  loved. 

FUTURE   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  be  loved,  1.  We  shall  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  loved,  2.  You  will  be  loved, 

3.  He  will  be  loved;  3.  They  will  be  loved. 


^r>  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


i 


PRESENT    PERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been  loved.  1.  We  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved.  2.  You  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  has  been  loved;  3.  They  have  been  loved. 

PAST   PERFECT    TENSE. 

Siriffuiar.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been  loved,  1.  We  had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,  2.  You  had  been  loved, 

3.  He  had  been  loved;  3.  They  had  been  loved. 

FUTURE    PERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been  loved.       1.  We  shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved,  2.  You  will  have  been  lovedj 

3.  He  will  have  been  loved.  3.  They  will  have  been  loved. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be  loved,  1.  We  may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  2.  You  may  be  loved, 

3.  He  may  be  loved  ;  3.  They  may  be  loved. 

PAST. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I  might  be  loved,  1.  We  might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  2.   You  might  be  loved, 

3.  He  might  be  loved;  3.  They  might  be  loved. 

PRESENT   PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved,   1.  We  may  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  2.  You  may  have  been  loved, 

loved,  3.  They  may  have  been  loved 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved ; 


PASSIVE    OF    LOVE.  47 

PAST    PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved,  1.  "We     might    have    been 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved, 

loved,  .  2.   You     might    have    been 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved;  loved, 

3.  They    might   have  been 
loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 
PRE8ENT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be  loved,  1.  If  we  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved,  2.  If  you  be  loved, 

3.  If  he  be  loved;  3.  If  they  be  loved. 

PAST. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were  loved,  1.  If  we  were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,  2.  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  were  loved ;  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular.  Plural 

2.  Be  thou  or  you  loved.        2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved. 

% 

INFINITIVE?. 

Present,  To  be  loved,  Perfect,  To  have  been  loved. 

PA  RTF 

Imperfect.  Being  loved.  Perf  ct,  Loved. 

(  omponnd,  Having  been  loved. 

Conjugate  in  like  manner,  learn,  place,  teach. 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Am  praised  is  a  verb,  it  asserts ;  weak,* 
it  forms  its  past  tense  by  adding  ed;  transitive,  it 
requires  an  object;  passive  voice,  the  object  is 
used  as  subject,  Indicative,  present,  first  singular 
to  agree  with  I  by  Rule  II.  I  am  praised.  You 
are  loved.  They  are  blessed.  We  were  esteemed. 
James  was  accused.  He  has  heard  the  news.  She 
had  learned  her  lesson.     TheyT  will  be  loved. 


LESSON  XXXIL 

160.  CONJUGATION  0E  THE  STRONG  VERB  TAKE. 

Principal  Partd. 
Present,  take.       Past,  took.      Perfect    Participle,     taken. 


INDICATIVE 

MODE. 

1. 

2. 

o. 

Singular. 

I  take, 
Thou  takest, 
He  takes; 

PRESENl 
1. 

2. 
3. 

Plural. 

We  take, 
You  take, 
They  take. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Singula  r. 

I  took, 

Thou  tookest, 

He  took; 

PAST. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

Plural. 

We  took, 
You  took, 
They  took. 

*The  teacher  may  use  the  terms  weak  or  regular  as  he  may 
desire.  The  terms  regular  and  irregular  though  long  used  are 
not  scientifically  correct  and  are  objectionable.  1  prefer  to 
follow  the  highest  authorities  in  the  use  of  iveak  and  strong. 


CONJUGATION   OF   TAKK.  49 

FUTURE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  take.  1-  We  shall  take. 

PRESENT    PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  taken.  1.  We  have  taken. 

PA8T    PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  taken.  1.  We  had  taken. 

FUTURE    PERFECT. 

Sing  ular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  taken.  1.   We  shall  have  taken. 


POTENTIAL. 

PRESENT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  take.  1.  We  may,  can,or  must  take- 

PAST. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could   would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would 
should  take.  or  should  take. 

PRESENT    PERFECT- 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  1.  We  may,  can  or  must  have 
taken.  taken. 

PABT  PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would 
should  have  taken.  or  should  have  taken. 

3 


50  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

prese:^. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  take,  If  thou  take,  &c.  1.  If  we  take. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Take  thou  or  you.  2.  Take  ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present,  To  take.  Perfect,  To  have  taken. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect,  Taking.  Perfect,  Taken. 

Compound,  Having  taken. 
Give  a  synopsis  in  full  of  this  verb. 

EXERCISES. 

He  sang  a  song.  The  birds  were  singing.  In 
all  the  meadows  the  flowers  are  blooming,  for 
joyous  spring  has  come  again* 


LESSOR  XXXIII. 

161.    INTERROGATIVE  FORM   OF   LEARN. 
INDICTATIVE.  POTENTIAL. 

Present^  Do  I  learn  ?  Present,  May  I  learn  ? 

Past,  i>id  I  learn  ?  Past,  Might  I  learn  ? 

Future,  Shall  I  learn  ? 

Pres,  Perf.f  Have  I  lcarneaf  Pres,   Perf,    May   I   have 
Past  Perf.,  Had  I  learned?  learned  ? 

Put.    Perf,   Shall     I    have  Past  Perf,  Might  I  have 
learned  ?  learned  ? 


INFINITIVES    AND    PARTICIPLES.  51 

162.    THE    INFINITIVES   AND    PARTICIPLES. 

There  arc  two  forms  of  the  infinitive,  the  simple 
infinitive  without  Ho,  and  the  form  with  to  or  the 
prepositional  infinitive. 

The  first  is  the  true  infinitive,  the  last  is  a  case 
of  the  infinitive. 

Note  for  tite  Teacher. — In  Saxon  the  infinitive  of 
love  was  lufian  while  the  prepositional  form  was  to  lufi&nne. 
The  last  is  called  a  supine  and  is  the  source  of  our  to  love. 

163.  The  simple  infinitive  is  now  found  only 
after  may,  can,  must,  will,  shall,  do,  let,  make,  need, 
have,  hear,  see,  bid,  dare,  feel,  and  sometimes,  ob- 
serve, perceive,  know,  help. 

164.  The  Infinitive  depends  upon  verbs,  nouns, 
and  adjectives  ;  as,  He  desires  to  play  :  A  time  to 
learn  ;  He  is  anxious  to  improve. 

165.  The  compound  tenses  will  love,  may  love 
can  love  are  indicative  tenses  of  will,  may,  and  can, 
followed  by  the  simple  infinitive. 

166.  The  Participle  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the 
adjective. 

167.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adjective;  a?, 
the  rising  sun,  the  opening  flowers. 

It  is  then  called  a  Participial  adjective. 

168.  When  un  is  joined  to  the  perfect  participle 
it  becomes  an  adjective  unless  there  is  a  verb  of 
that  form  ;  as,  tmawakened  wiconcerned. 

EXERCISE-. 

Model.  To  play  is  the  present  infinitive  of  the 
verb  play  and  depends  upon  desires  by 


02  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


1C9.  Rule  XXI.  The  Infinitive  depends  upon  Verbs, 
nouns,  and  adjectives, 

Having  learned  is  a  compound  participle  from 
the  verb  learned  and  refers  to  James  by 

170.  Rule  XXIII.  Participles  refer  to  nouns 
and  pronouns.  He  desires  to  play  in  the  fields. 
James,  having  learned  his  lesson,  recited  it.  He 
is  eager  to  iearn.  ~Boys  love  to  play.  The  rising 
sun  dispels  the  darkness. 


LESSOR  XXXIV. 

THE  IRREGULAR  OR  STRONG  VERB. 

171.  The  Irregular  verb,  commonly  so  called, 
includes  several  classes.  1st.  The  strong  verbs  ; 
as,  sing,  sang,  sung.  2d.  Some  defectives  ;  as, 
Am,  was,  been.  3d.  Those  that  are  weak  in  the 
past  tense  but  have  the  participle  in  en,  4th.  Those 
that  have  also  a  weak  or  Regular  form,  marked 
R.  5th.  Those  that  change  the  vowel  and  add 
the  terminal  ion;  as,  seek,  sough-t,  marked  "W. 
The  parts  not  now  in  use  arc  marked  *. 

PRESENT.  PAST.  PERF.  PARTICIPLE. 

Abide,  abode,  abode. 

Am  or  be,  was,  been. 

Awake,  awoke,  R.  awaked. 

Bear,  bore,  bare,  *  borne. 

Beat,  beat,  beat,  beaten. 

Begin,  began,  begun. 


TABLE  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


o3 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERF.  PARTICIPLE. 

Bend, 

bent,  bended, 

bent. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besought,  TV. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade, 

bidden,  bid. 

Bind, 

bound, 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit, 

bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bled. 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

Break, 

broke,  brake,  * 

broken. 

Breed, 

bred, 

bred. 

Bring, 

Burst, 

brought, 
burst, 

brought,  AY. 

burst 

Buy, 

Cast, 

bought, 
cast, 

bought,  W; 
cast. 

Catch, 
Chide, 

caught, 
chid, 

cauffh".  "W. 

chidden,  chid. 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

Cleave, 

cleaved,  clave, * 

:  cleaved. 

Cleave, 

clove,    clave,  * 
cleft, 

cloven,  cleft. 

Cling, 
Clothe, 

clung, 
clad,  R. 

el  u  112. 

clad. 

Come, 

came, 

come. 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 

Creep, 

crept, 

crept. 

Crow, 

crew,  R. 

crown,  K. 

Cut, 

cut, 

cut. 

Dare, 

durst,  R. 

durst. 

Deal, 

dealt,  R. 

dealt. 

Dig- 

dug,  K. 

dug. 

Do, 

did. 

done. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drunk. 

Drive, 

drove,  drave,  * 

driven. 

Eat, 

ate,  caf. 

eaten. 

Fall, 

11, 

fallen. 

54  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERF.   PARTICIPLE 

Feed, 

fed, 

i'od. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought,  W. 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew, 

flown. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaken. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Get, 

got,  gat,  * 

gotten,  got. 

Give, 
Go, 

gave, 
went, 

given, 
gone, 

Grind, 

ground, 

ground. 

Grow 

grew, 

grown. 

llano*, 
Have, 

Lung,  R. 
had, 

hung. 
had. 

Heave, 

hove,  R. 

hoven. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewn. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hidden,  hid. 

Hold, 

held, 

held,  holden. 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Knit, 

knit,  R. 

knit. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Lade, 

laded, 

laden. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

Lead, 

led, 

led. 

Lie, 

lav, 

lain. 

Light, 

lit,  R. 

lit. 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Meet, 

met, 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

Read, 

read,  (Pron. 

rc(7)read  (red.) 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode, 

ridden,  rid. 

Ring, 

rang,  rung, 

rung. 

TABLE  OF  IRREGULAR  VEKIJS.  65 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERF.  PARTICIPLE 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Run, 

ran, 

run. 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought.  W. 

Sell, 

sold, 

sold,  \V. 

Set, 

set, 

set. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone,  R. 

shone. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Shrink, 

shrunk,  shrank, 

shrunk. 

Sing, 
Sink, 

sang,  sung, 
sunk,^sank, 

suns:, 
sunk 

Slay, 

slew,  - 

slain. 

Slide, 

slid, 

slidden. 

Sling, 

slung,  slang,  * 

slung. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smitten, 

Speak, 

spoke,  spake, 

spoken. 

Spin, 

span,  span, 

spun. 

Spring, 
Stand, 

sprang,  sprung, 
stood, 

sprung, 
stood. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

Stine, 

stung, 

stung. 

Stride, 

strode, 

stridden. 

Strike, 

struck, 

.struck,  strickeu. 

String, 

strung, 

strung. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

Swear, 

swore,  sware,* 

sworn. 

Swell, 

swelled, 

swollen. 

Swim, 

swum,  swam, 

swum. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swung. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught,  W", 

56 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERF.   PARTICIPLE 

Tear, 

tore,  tare, 

torn . 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

Think, 

'thought, 

thought,  W. 

Thrive, 

throve, 

thriven. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Tread, 

trod, 

trodden. 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove. 

woven. 

Win, 

won, 

won. 

Wind, 

wound. 

wound. 

Wring, 

wrung,  B, 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

The  past  tense  and  past  participle  should  not 
be  used  for  each  other. 

EXERCISES   FOR   CORRECTION. 

The  horses  drawed  the  carriage.  The  horses 
were  drove.  The  birds  have  flew  away.  The 
stream  has  froze  over.  They  have  wrote  to-day. 
The  meeting  has  began.  She  has  sang  a  song. 
The  sun  has  rose.  They  done  their  work.  My 
watch  was  stole.  The  ball  was  throwed.  The 
apples  have  fell.  The  letter  Avas  writ.  The  letter 
was  wrote  badly.  We  rid  a  mile.  I  have  not  saw 
him.  My  uncle  has  came.  The  bird  has  flew 
away. 

LESSON  XXXV. 

DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 

172.  A  few  verbs  are  defective  or  wanting  in 
gome  of  their  parts, 


* 


ADVERBS.  57 

Am,  was,  been  is  a  defective,  made  up  of 
am,  was,  be,  three  words. 

Go,  went,  gone  is  defective.  Went  is  the 
past  tense  of  wend^ 

173.  The  auxiliary  verbs^shall,  will,  may, 
can,  must  are  defective  in  all  but  the  present  and 
past  tenses,  indicative./ 

UNIPERSONAL    VERBS. 

174.  Unipersonal  verbs  arc  those  that  are 
found  only  in  the  Cthird  person  singular;  as,  It 
rains;  It  hails ;  It  snows. 


LESSON  XXXVI. 

ADVERB. 3. 

175.  When  I  say  "lie  runs  swiftly,"  u  She 
speaks  correctly,"  swiftly  and  correctly  tell  how  the 
thing   or  action   is  done,  and  modify  the   verb. 

Tliey  are  called  adverbs,  which  means  to  a 
verb,  that  is,  added  to  a  verb. 

xVdverbs  also  modify  adjectives  and  other  ad- 
verbs; as,  most  pleasant ,  v<  ry  slowly. 

170.  An  adverb  is  a  word  joined  to 
verbs,  adjectives  and  other  adverbs  to 
m  o  d  i  f  y  the  m . 

177.  They  are  divided  into  classes  according  to 
their  meaning. 

Adverbs  of  maimer;  justly,  pleasantly,  sweetly, 
3b 


58  ENGLISH    GUAM  MAIL 

Adverbs  of  time;  now,  to-day,  lately,  since, 
then. 

Adverbs  of  place;  here,  there,  where,  hence. 
Adverbs  of  degree;  more,  most,  hardly,  less. 
Adverbs  of  affirmation  ;  yea,  yes,  certainly. 
Adverbs  of  negation ;  no,  not. 

178.  Some  adverbs  are  used  to  connect  propo- 
sitions and  clauses,  and  are  called  Connective 
Adverbs;  as,  "  He  will  hear  the  newa  when  he 
arrives/' 

179.  Adverbs  are  compared  like  adjectives ;  as, 
far,  farther,  farthest;  loisely,  more  wisely,  most 
wisely. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Brightly  is  an  adverb,  it  is  a  word  used 
to  modify  verbs,  and  modifies  shines  by 

180.  Rule  XVI.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjec- 
tives and  other  adverbs. 

The  sun  shines  brightly.  Thomas  learns  rapidly. 
Susan  is  very  diligent.  He  drove  very  swiftly. 
They  came  to-day.  They  are  very  young.  The 
trees  bend,  when  the  wind  blows. 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

181.  He  came  with  me.  With  connects  the 
objective  case  me  with  came,  and  shows  the  relation 
between  them. 

It  is  called  a  preposition. 


PREPOSITIONS.  59 

The  word  which  follows  the  preposition  is  always 
in  the  objective  case. 

182.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  which 
shows  the  relation  between  its  objective 
case  and  some  other  word  in  the  same 
sentence. 

183.  The  preposition  with  its  object  is  called  an 
adjunct ;  as,  "He  came  with  me."  With  me  is  an 
adjunct  modifying  came. 

184.  The  principal  prepositions  are: — About, 
above,  after,  against,  among,  around,  before,  be- 
hind, beside,  be}*ond,  by,  down,  ihv  from,  in,  into, 
of,  on,  OvTer,  through,  under,  unto,  up,  upon, 
with,  within,  without. 

EXERCISES. 

31odd.  In  is  a  preposition,  a  word  used  to  show 
the  relation  of  nouns  and  pronouns  to  other  words, 
it   shows    the    relation    between    Richmond   and 
les  by 

185 .  Rule  XVII.  P  repo  s  i  tlons  sho  w  the 
relation  be1  ■"'•en  nouns  and  'pronouns  and  other  words 
in  the,  same  sentence, 

Richmond  is  the  object  of  in  by 

18G.  Rule  XVIII.  Prepositions  arc  follou 
by  the  olji  ctiv  a 

He  resides  in  Richmond.  Flowers  bloom  i i i 
summer.  .Rivers  flow  into  the  sea,  lie  came  from 
Rome.  Birds  ily  through  the  air.  The  ball  rolls 
along  the  ground. 


60  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

LESSOX  XXXVIII. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

187.  John  writes  and  Thomas  reads.  Here  and 
connects  two  propositions  without  forming  a  part 
of  either. 

It  is  called  a  conjunction,  which  means  joining 
together. 

1 88.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to 
connect  w  o  r  d  s  a  n  d  propositions. 

189.  The  principal  conjunctions  are;-^-And,  as, 
although,  because,  hut,  either,  except,  for,  if,  lest, 
neither,  nor,  or,  than,  that,  though,  unless,  whether, 
vet. 

INTERJECTIONS.    . 

190.  The  interjection  is  a  word  used  in  cries  of 
pain,  anger,  sorrow,  calling,  &c.  They  are  chiefly, 
0  !  Oh  !  ah  !  alas  !  hold  !  shame  !  tush  !  away  ! 
16 !  &c. 

191.  There  adenine  classes  of  words  called  p&rts 
of  speed).  They  are  the  Noun,  Pronoun,  Verb, 
Adjective,  Article,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunc- 
tion and  Interjection. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  And  is  a  conjunction,  it  is  used  to  connc  ct 
words  and  sentences.  It  connects  Mary  and  sister  by 

192.  Rule  XIX.  Conjunctions  connect  words 
and,  sentences. 

Mary  and  her  sister  have  come.  The  winter  is 
past  and  Spring  has  come.  James  or  his  brother 
will  come  to-morrow.  Peaches,  apples  and  pears 
grow  in  the  orchard. 


SYNTAX.  61 

PAET    SECOND. 


SYNTAX. 


LESSON   XXXIX. 

193.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences according  to  the  laws  of  the  language. 

194.  Language  consists  of  sentences,  proposi- 
tions, clauses,  and  phrases. 

19-5.  A  Sentence  is  a  collection  of  words  mak- 
ing complete  sense. 

190.  A  Proposition  is  a  simple  assertion  ;  as, 
John  runs. 

197.  When  a  sentence  contains  but  one  proposi- 
tion, it  is  a  simple  sentence;  when  more  than  one, 
a  compound  sentence. 

198.  The  clause  is  a  proposition  or  a  collection 
of  words  introducing  some  new  fact,  and  which  is 
dependent  upojjj  some  word  in  the  sentence;  as, 
"The  tree. whicb^ou  sec  is  a  maple."  "Which 
yon  see,1'  is  a  clause  dependent  upon  tree. 

is  may  be  used  as  members  of  a  proposi- 
tion. 

199.  A  Phrase  is  a  short  expression  like,  /. 
in  Jim  ,  in  short,  to  In  stit   . 

They  express  a  single  idea  when  taken  together. 
Taken  word  by  word  they  have  no  grammatical 
connection  with  the  rest  of  the  proposition. 


THE  R  ULi:*  OF  s  YXTA  X( 
LESSOR    XL. 

200.  Hide  I.  Wio  subject  o  verb  is 

put  in  the  nominative  c  a 


02  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  infinitive,  a  clause,  or  a  sentence  may  be 
used  as  the  subject  of  the  verb;  as,  "  T<>  err  is 
human,  to  forgive,  divine."  "  Whoever  runs,  may 
read."  "  That  t  olumbus  discovered  America  is  well 
known." 

2 01  Rule  II.  T he  verb  must  agree  wit h 
its  subject  in  number  and  person. 

Two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  and  require 
a  plural  verb. 

202.  Two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  or  or 
nor  require  a  singular  verb. 

203.  Collective  nouns  take  a  plural  verb  when 
they  maybe  substituted  for  them,  in  other  eases  the 
singular. 

EXERCISES    TO    BE    CORRECTED    AND    PABSED. 

The  clouds  has  dispersed.  The  biids  sings. 
There  was  three  men  in  the  company.  There  is 
men  who  never  think.  Idleness  and  ignorance  is 
the  parent  of  many  viees.  James  and  John  was 
there.  John  or  William  have  come.  The  horse 
or  cow  are  his. 

A  meeting  were  called.  The  crowd  were 
very  great.  The  council  was  unanimous.  The 
assembly  was  divided  in  opinion. 


LESSON  XLL 
204.(Rule  III.      The    noun    or   pronoun 
in  the  predicate  agrees  with  the  sub- 
ject   in    case;  as,  "It  is  I;"  "  It  is  he  ;"  "It 

is  they. I' 

IThe  infinitive  or  clause  may  take  the  place  of 
the  noun  :  "  To  sleep  is  to  drcarn.'f  "  The  old 
-lying  is,  '  Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together.' ' 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  68 

EXERCISES. 

Correct.  It  was  be  that  said  it.  It  is  they  who 
are  to  blame.     James  is  a  skillful  workman. 

Incorrect.  It  was  me  that  you  saw.  It  is  them. 
If  it  is  them  whom  you  saw,  it  is  right. 

205£l\ule  IV.  A  n  01:11  o  r  p  r  o  11  o  u  u  1  i  ra- 
it i  n  g  anot  h  e  r  n  o  u  n  d  e  11  o  t  i  11  g  the 
s  a  m  e  person  or  thing  is  p  11  tin  the 
s  a  m  e  ease.     This  is  ealled  Apposition} 

fTlic  names  of  persons  form  complex  nouns  and 
are  parsed  as  one  word  ;  as,  Mark  Antony  mourned 
the  death  of  Julius  Caesar/ 

f  As  sometimes  connects  words  in  apposition  ;  as, 
"  Clay  as  an  orator  was  unrivalled y 

Distributive  pronouns  and  nouns  modified  by 
distributive  adjectives,  in  the  singular  agree  with 
nouns  in  the  plural;  as,  They  lied,  every  man  to 
hia  tent. 

They  love  each  other.  Here  each  is  in  apposi- 
tion with  they,  and  other  is  the  object  of  love. 

A  noun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  sentence, 
and  an  infinitive  or  sentence  may  be  in  apposition 
with  a  noun. 

Correct.  Newton,  the  great  philosopher,  was 
an  humble  Christian.      W<  are    mortal.      Ye 

men  of  Athens.     Jane    and    Mary,    our   com 
Thou,  even  thou  art  feared. 

Incorrect.     It   was  Virgil,  him    who    wrol 
Aeneid.     I  speak  of  Cromwell  he  who  behea 
Charles.     Thomas  ami  Maria,   our  cousin. 


1.  'I. 

200.  Rule  V.      T  li  e    noun    or    pronoun 
limiting    another    noun    denoting 
d  i  ffe  rent    p  e  r  s  0  n    ort  hi'  put    in 

the  possessive   c 


61  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Or,  The  Possessive  case  limits  the  following  noun. 

The  possessive  case  modifies  like  an  adjective; 
as  "John's hat," -John's   limits  or  describes  hat. 

The  noun,  and  preposition  of  are  often  used  in- 
stead of  the  possessive  case;  as,  "The  hat  of 
John,"  for  John's  hat. 

2,7.  When  two  or  three  nouns' in  apposition  fol- 
low each  other  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  an- 
nexed to  the  last;  as,  "Paul,  the  apostle's,  journey." 

208.  When  the  thing  possessed  belongs  to^sev- 
eral  persons  the  sign  is  annexed  to  the  last  only*; 
as,  "James,  Thomas,  and  William's  house." 

When  the  thing  belongs  to  each  one  separately 
the  sign  is  annexed  to  each  ;  as,  ;t  Webster's  and 
Worcester's  Dictionaries." 

209  .Words  united  so  as  to  form  a  complex 
noun  add  the  sign  to  the-  last;  as,  "Henry  the 
eighth's  reign." 

Correct.  He  accompanied  me  to  St.  Mary's 
church.  The  church  of  St.  Mary.  That  is  Brown, 
the  printer's  house.  Smith,  Brown,  and  Jones's 
sto»-e.  Sargent's  and  Sanders'  readers.  Sterling 
and  Campbell's  series  of  "  Our  Own  Books."  The 
Kins:  of  Saxonv's  arm  v. 

Incorrect.  This  was  your  fathers  estate.  One 
mans  loss  is  often  another  mans  gain.  These 
bonks  are  their's,  those  are  yonr's.  The  men 
shoes  are  in  the  box.  Daniel's  Websters  speech. 
David  and  Solomon's  reign  were  prosperous.  Ma- 
ry's sister's  cousin's  child  is  sick. 


LESSOR  XLIII. 

210.  Rule VI.  Adjectives  modify    nouns 
a  n  d  p  r  o  nouns. 
Definitives  must  agree  with  their  nouns  in  number. 


RULES  OF  .SYNTAX.  (35 

They  modify  infinitives;  as,  "To  sec  the  sun  is 
pleasant;"  and  sentences;  as,  "That  he  should 
have  refused  the  appointment  is  extraordinary" 

They  sometimes  modify  other  adjectives;  as, 
"  Red  hot  iron." 

They  modify  also  a  noun  and  adjective  taken 
together  as  one  idea;  as,  a  poor  old  man.  A  fine 
bay  horse. 

211.  They  modify  intransitive  verbs,  and  with 
them  form  the  predicate;  as,  "He  fell  ill."  "He 
looks  pale" 

They  modify  also  transitive  verbs,  to  show  the 
effect  produced;  as,  "lie  made  me  glad)'  "Thou 
makest  the  earth  soft  with  showers."  Making  glad 
is  the  assertion,  and  me  is  the  object  of  it.  See 
Rule  XIII. 

Adjectives  should  not  be  used  in  the  place  of 
adverbs,  except  in  cases  like  those  just  given. 

With  the  they  are  used  as  nouns;  as,  "  The  rich 
are  not  always  happy." 

212.  \Vhen  comparison  is  made  between  two 
objects  the  comparative  degree  must  be  used; 
when  it  is  made  between  three  or  more,  the  super- 
lative is  used. 


EXERCISES. 

Incorrect.  A  new  barrel  of  flour.  (It  should  be 
"A  barrel  of  new  flour.")  Aclear  spring  of  water. 
A  green  load  of  wood.  A  new  pair  of  boots.  She 
reads  proper,  writes  neat,  and  sings  elegant.  A 
tree  fifty  foot  high.     Twenty  ton  of  hay. 

•James  is  the  tallest  of  the  two.  lie  is  the 
oldest  of  the  two.  It  is  the  most  beat.  His  is  the 
bestest.     Eve  was  the  fairest  of  all  her  daughters, 


6*6  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  XLIV. 

213.  Rule  VII,  The  Indefinite  article 
limits    nouns    in    the    singular   number 

on  I  y . 

214.  Rule  VIII.  The  Definite  article 
limits  nouns  in  the  singular  or  plural 
n  u  m  b era. 

Articles  sometimes  modify  the  sense  of  adjec- 
tives; as,  "  A  few  days."  l,So  much  the  stronger 
seemed  he." 

T, le  often  modifies  adverbs;  as,  "the  longer  you 
delay  the  worse  it  will  be." 

EXERCISES. 

Correct.  I  saw  a  white  and  black  horse.  A 
white  and  a  black  horse  were  in  the  pasture.  He 
has  a  little  reverence,  but  not  much,  lie  has  little, 
if  any,  reverence. 

Incorrect.  Those  sort  of  questions.  These  kind 
of  people  is  troublesome,  lie  sold  six  bushels  of 
wheat  at  nine  shilling  a  bushel,  lie  bought  an 
old  span  of  horses  and  a  new  set  of  harness.  I 
have  a  lemon  and  orange.  He  ma}-  be  a  judge  or 
doctor.  Oak  produces  acorns.  A  rose  is  the  beau- 
tiful flower. 

215.  Rule^TX.  Pro  nouns  agree  with  their 
nouns  in  gender,  n  u  m  b  e  r  and  person  .) 

When  the  pronoun  agrees  with  two  or  more 
nouns  taken  together  itQnust  be  plural):  but  when 
they  are  taken  separately  it  must  h(( singular} 

when  there  are  several  persons  (the  first  is  pre- 
ferred to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third?; 
as,  "James,  you,  and  I  must  study  our  lessons." 

EXERCISES. 

Incorrect.  Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment  and  put 
them  upon  Jacob.     One  cannot  be  too  careful  of 


HULKS  or  SYNTAX.  07 


their  reputation.   George  and  Charles  are  diligent 
in  his  studies. 

You  and  I  will  recite  your  lessons. 

James  or  John  lost  their  book. 


LESSON  XLV. 
216.flEtule  X.   The  object  of  the  Transi- 
tive verb  is  put  in  the  objective  c  a  s  (y. 

A  (few  verba  not  transitive  take  after  them  a 
noun  of  similar  meaning  as  to  run  a  race,  to  live  a 
fife.) 

*  The  infinitives,  p  a  ft  ici  plea,  and  v  e  r  b  a  1 
nouns  have  the  same  government^ as  their  verbs  'J 
as,  To  make   clothes.  "'The   man   making   clothes. 
Making  clothes.  Clothes  is  the  object  in  each  case. 

The  infinitive  or  clause  may  be  used  as  the  ob- 
ject; as,  lie  desires  to  learn.  He  said  that  he  would 

'go. 

EXERCISES. 

Incorrect.  Who  did  you  see?  He  I  must  pun- 
ish. Thou  have  I  chosen.  She  who  yon  met. 
He  and  they  we  know,  but  whom  art  thou  ?  2So 
one  should  practice  of  stealing. 

217.  (Rule    XI .     V  e  r  b  s    o  f   a  s  k  i  n  g    a  n  d 
t  eachi  ng  a  re  fol  lowed   by  twk 
jive  c  asea  o  n  e  <>  f  p  e  r  a  o  n  a  n  -1  1  h  <*  o  th- 
er    o  ;'    jth  i  ng/   as,  "  II"    taught 
-  I!c  ask<  d  mo  a  auestiou." 

X\rheu  these  vi  aged   t«>   I 

form  the  ol  ':i    '"' ■' 

while  that  of  thing  remains  in  t. 
as,  "I  was  taugl 

Correct,     Our  |  na.     The  <-'a: 

builds  houses.  1niller  SHn'U  8«Wer'       H,! 


OS  ENGLISH    QRAMMA1. 

ran  a  long  race.  He  lived  a  happy  life.  lie 
taught  James  Arithmetic.  William  asked  hiin 
many  questions. 


LESSON  XL VI. 

218.  Rule  XII.  Verbs  o  f  g  i  v  i  ri  g,  grant- 
ing, alio  w  i  n  g,  &c,  are  f o  1 1  o  w  e  d  by  t  w o 
objectives,  the  direct  and  the  indi- 
rect object. 

The  indirec  object  precedes  the  direct,  and  is 
properly  in  the  Dative  case. 

If  it  tollows,  it  becomes  a  noun  and  preposition; 
as,  "  He  gave  me  a  book."  "  He  gave  a  book  to 
me." 

When  these  verbs  take  the  passive    voice,  the- 
direct  object  becomes  the  subject,  while  the  indi- 
rect remains  unchanged;  as,  UA  book  was  given 
me." 

There  is  also  a  form  where  the   indirect   object 
bocomes    the    subject;  as,   "  He  promised   me   a 
present."     "I  was  promised  a  present." 

219.  Itule  XIII.  V  e  r  b  s  of  choosing,  ma- 
king, rendering  and  c  o  n  s  t  i  t  u  t  i  n  g  a  r  e 
followed  by  two  o  b  j  e  c  t  i  v  e  s,  one  the 
direct  object  and  the  other  the  ef- 
fect produced;  as  "  They  chose  him  gener- 
al." Choosing  general  is  the  assertion,  him  the 
direct  object,  and  general  the  cifect  produced. 

In  the  passive  voice  the  direct  object  becomes 
the  subject,  and  the  object  of  effect  is  put  in  the 
same  case  ;  as,  " He  was  chosen  general." 

The  object  of  effect  may  be  a  noun;  as,  "They 
elected  him  President ;"  an  adjective;  as,  "  They 
make  us  glad"     "They  esteemed  Socrates  wise  / 


KUhKS  OF  SYNTAX.  fj\) 

fcr,  an  infinitive;  as,  "They  made  him  <jo."     "Thou 
wilt  make  us  to  lire." 

The  adjective  in  such  cases  agrees  with  the 
noun,  but  modifies  the  verb  by  expressing  the  ef- 
fect produced  by  its  action. 

220.  Rule  XIV.  Nouns  denoting  dur  a- 
1 1  o  n  of  time^  distance,  weight,  meas- 
ure, and  price  are  put  in  the  objective 
case  after  adjectives  and  verbs. 

221.  Bale  XV.  The  adjectives  like, 
u  n  1  i  k  e,  n  e  a  r,  and  nigh  are  folio  w  e  d 
by  the  objective  case.  [Or  more  correct- 
ly, the  dative,  as  that  was  their  former  power.] 

EXERCTSES. 

He  gave  me  a  book.  A  present  was  promised 
me.  They  chose  him  secretary.  He  was  chosen 
clerk.  It  made  them  delirious.  They  were  made 
delirious.  He  is  like  his  father.  He  was  sitting 
near  me.  His  son  is  unlike  him,  The  sight  made 
him  shout  for  joy. 


LESSOR  XLVIL 

222.  Rule XVI.  Adverbs  modify  verbs, 
adjectives  and  other  adverbs. 

They  sometimes  modify  prepositions,  adjuncts, 
and  phrases  ;  as.  u  Just  below  the  surface;"  " In- 
mependently  of  these  things;"  u  I  lived  almost  in 
vai  n . " 

Yes,  and,  ??o,  yea,  way,  and  amen  are  used  inde- 
pendently. /  -  us.-d  as  an  introductory  word 
without  any  force  in  the  sentence;  as,  "  There 
was  a  man."  It  i^  Used  when  the  subject  is  to  be 
put  after  the  verb.  Adrerbl  are  sometimes  used 
as  nouns;  as,  "Until  -now."     "  Since  token" 


70  ENGLISH    GftAMMAR. 

223.  Rule  XVII.  Prepositions  connect 
w  o  r  d  8  a  n  d  s  h  o  w  the  relation  bet  w  c  e  n 
the  in. 

224.  Rule  XVIII.  The  object  of  the 
preposition  is  put  in  t  h  e  objective? 
case. 

225.  Rule  XIX.     Conjunctions  connect 

words  and  sentences. 

When  the}'  connect  words  they  may  be  consid- 
ered   as  connecting  sentences  :    James  and  John* 
were  studying,  that  is,  James  was  studying,  John' 
was  stud  vine. 

226.  The  connectives  are  conjunctions,  connec- 
tive adverbs  and  relative  pronouns. 

227.  Rule  XX.  The  interjections  0! 
oh!  ah!  are  followed  by  the  objective 
of  the  first  person  and  the  nomina- 
tive oft  he  second. 


EXERCISES. 


lie  heard  him  gladly.  The  journey  was  very 
tiresome.  He  outran  him  very  easily.  Just 
above  the  house  there  was  a  large  tree.  Did  you 
hear  me?  Yes.  There  is  a  happy  land  far,  far 
away.  I  had  not  heard  it  until  now.  lie  left  on 
Monday.  James  and  his  brother  came  with  me. 
They  came  with  the  intention  of  speaking. 

LESSOX  XL VIII. 

228.  Rule  XXI.  The  In  fi  n  i  ti  ve  d  ep  en  ds 

noon  nouns,  verbs,    and    adjectives. 

229.  The  infinitive,  in   its  nature,  is  a  verbal 

noun,  and  may  be  used  as  a  uoun  in  nearly  all 

cases;  as,  rlo  Ik  is  base,  (subject.)     To  lie  w  to  d*' 


tlCLES  OF  SYNTAX.  71 

ceive,  (predicate.)  He  loves  to  play,  (object)  He 
taught  him  to  write,  or  they  taught  him  writing. 
They  chose  him  to  lead  the  way,  or  they  chose  him 
as  guide.  lie  permitted  him  to  choose.  He  permit- 
tea  or  granted  him  the  choice. 

230.  It  also  denotes  the  purpose,  and  is  equal  to 
a  contracted  sentence  ;  as,  "lie  prepared  to  go," 
that  is,  "He  prepared  that  he  might  go."  He 
reads  to  learn."     "He  reads  that  he  may  learn." 

231.  Rule  XXII.  The  simple  infinitive— 
without  to  —  i  8  u  s  e  d  after  bid,  feel, 
do,  have,  hear,  let,  m  a  k  e ,  need,  see, 
may,  can,  will,  shall,  must. 

232.  Rule  XXIII.  The  subject  of  the 
infinitive  is  put  in  the  objective;  as, 
"  I  advised  him  to  do  it,"  "  I  advised  that  he  should 
doit." 

233.  Rule  XXIV.  Participles  refer  to 
nouns  or  p  r  o n  0 u  n s . 

234.  Rule  XXV.  A  noun  joined  with  a 
participle  having  no  dependence  u  p- 
o  h  othe  r  w  o  r  d  s  is  put  in  the  nomin  a- 
t  i  v  e  case  absolute;  as,  "  He  being  defeated, 
the  arm}-  returned." 

235.  Rule  XXVI.  The  name  o  f  t  h  e  per- 
son or  thing  addressed  is  put  in  the 
vocative   case* 

EXERCISES. 

lie  desires  to  go  abroad.  He  is  anxious  to  hear 
the  news.  There  ia  a  time  to  die.  He  let  him  go 
without  farther  trouble.  H<-  desired  us  to  come 
with  him.     John  having  learned  his  I-'-  on  recited 

it.  He  being  dead,  we  shall  live.  John  come 
hero.  O  Judgment  thou  art  fled  to  brutish  breasts. 


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